Joint disease, defect, and injury are leading causes of pain and disability in the adult population. The morbidity associated with joint disease, defect, and injury and their spectrum of associated disorders are responsible for significant health care, economic and social costs. Current treatments for repairing or ameliorating a joint disease, defect, or injury, for example an osteochondral injury in which articular cartilage and underlying bone are damaged, can be expensive, inefficacious, painful, or lengthy. Alternative treatments are, therefore, needed.